An Analysis of the Concept of Gender-Based Violence

The concept of gender was first addressed in Ann Oakley’s book ‘Sex, Gender and Society’. In this context, unlike sex, which determines being female (woman) or male (man), gender refers to the femininity and masculinity produced cumulatively by socially constructed structures of thought and behaviour. In other words, sex is determined biologically. Gender, by contrast, is a sexist structure grounded in the biological differentiation of women and men, which legitimises the oppression and domination to which people are subjected on account of their sex or sexual orientation. Gender determines both a discriminatory, unequal and oppressive social order and the psychological and behavioural characteristics of the people who live within that order. Viewed historically in this context, gender has assigned certain roles to women and men within structures of thought that developed over time and permeated society, and has thereby determined the societal, social and economic functions of women and men. Accordingly, within the patriarchal system women are assigned roles such as motherhood, gathering, housewifery, servitude and caregiving, whereas men are given roles such as hunting, soldiering, administration and management. Gender roles are therefore determined within the patriarchal system. It is argued that when gender-based stereotypes and roles become sharper and more fixed, prejudice, oppression and violence against people who do not fit these stereotypes also increase.

It is argued that patriarchal behaviour and paradigms have legitimised the oppression and exploitation of women as a sex within society, and have led to men’s domination of both women’s sexuality and their labour. Patriarchal ideas cause gender roles to take root and grow stronger within society. The term patriarchy also encompasses the historical dimension of the exploitation and domination of women.

The sharpening of gender roles reinforces the patriarchal mindset and exposes individuals to behaviour such as othering, domination, exploitation and exclusion on the basis of their sex and sexual orientation. Gender roles, for example, specify the characteristics attributed to women and, within the scope of these characteristics, their behaviour and the work they are to do; women are ascribed qualities such as patience, docility and obedience. Moreover, because of the patriarchal system of thought, tasks such as housework, childcare and care of the elderly are considered to be the responsibility of women alone. The patriarchal social structure has given rise to gender inequality affecting women, children and men who fall outside the dominant gender roles.

Policies at national and international level give rise to gender inequality. Gender inequality means any distinction, deprivation or restriction made on the basis of sex and sexual orientation which prevents or nullifies, or aims to prevent or nullify, the recognition, exercise and enjoyment by women, children and men who fall outside the dominant gender roles of their human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural and civil spheres.

Gender-based violence encompasses every kind of direct and indirect act involving threat and coercion which restricts or nullifies, or aims to restrict or nullify, fundamental rights and freedoms. It is violence directed at a person on the basis of that person’s gender or sex. Violence includes forcing a person to act against their will through coercion, threats, deception, cultural expectations or the use of economic power. Although girls and women make up the great majority of cases of gender-based violence, boys and men may also be harmed by this kind of violence. For this reason, situations of gender-based violence have been explained with reference to people who are othered because of their sex and sexual orientation.

Types of Gender-Based Violence

Physical violence: acts that cause physical harm to a person against that person’s will, on account of their sex or sexual orientation, in order to force them to do something or prevent them from doing something. These are destructive acts directed at the person’s body, either directly or by means of an object. They include slapping, beating, hitting, pushing, biting, slamming against a wall, breaking bones, pulling hair, kicking, drawing a knife, wounding, burning, strangling, wounding with a weapon, shaking and attempted murder.

Verbal violence: acts such as making demeaning remarks about a person on account of their sex or sexual orientation, mocking their weaknesses, blaming, swearing, belittling, insulting and shouting.

Psychological/emotional violence: includes acts such as belittling a person on account of their sex or sexual orientation, disregarding their personality and ideas, behaving in ways that create fear in the person, refusing to speak, sulking, preventing the person from expressing themselves, preventing them from expressing their views and thoughts, emotional exploitation, causing misunderstandings through insinuation, interfering in the person’s decision-making, restricting their social life with rigid rules, cutting their ties with those around them, restricting their freedom of movement, confining them to the house, locking them in, speaking demeaningly to them in front of others, shouting, name-calling, controlling them under the pretext of jealousy, shaming them, giving orders, damaging belongings they cherish and following them constantly.

Sexual violence: forcing a person into sexual intercourse at a place, at a time and in a manner they do not want, even if the person is married; making sexual innuendoes; harming their genitals; behaving in a degrading manner in their sexual life; forcing the person into prostitution; marrying them off as a child; causing them to contract sexually transmitted diseases; forcing them to bear or not to bear children, or to have an abortion.

Economic violence: various forms of action such as forcing a person to work against their will or preventing them from working. These include not meeting household expenses, not giving family members the allowance they need, not allowing the person to work, taking away the earnings of a person who works, controlling the person’s property and possessions, controlling where the person spends money, forcing the person into debt, the pay gap between women and men in working life and the worsening of the working conditions of women in employment.

Digital violence: the dissemination over the internet, through public or private communication, one-to-one or through groups, of content containing statements and acts that cause people, on account of their sex and sexual orientation, to feel in imminent danger in everyday life and under psychological, economic, material and moral anxiety and pressure.

Unilateral persistent stalking: following a person physically, going to their workplace or home, calling them on the telephone, following them through social media, and sending them messages, letters or e-mails.

Dating violence: controlling, intrusive, restrictive, degrading, harmful and injurious behaviour, from a first date to long-term romantic relationships, that one party uses to dominate and gain power over the other, with the aim of frightening, intimidating and creating dependence in the other party. Such behaviour includes different forms of violence, including physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, social and digital violence. Because dating covers relationships before marriage, dating violence is thought to be a problem affecting only young people of secondary school and university age. A dating relationship, however, can occur at any age. Dating violence is therefore a form of violence that individuals of any age may encounter within a dating relationship.

Ceren Özkan GBV Case Management Assistant / Gender-Based Violence Case Management Assistant